One-Child Policy Introduced

Origins and Implementation

China's birth-limitation programme evolved through the 1970s before being formalised in September 1980 with an open letter from the Party Central Committee. The policy required most urban couples to have only one child; exceptions were allowed for rural families whose first child was a daughter, ethnic minorities, and parents who were themselves only children. Enforcement was devolved to local governments and work units, creating enormous variation in implementation — from persuasion and financial incentives to forced sterilisation and late-term abortion.

Demographic Consequences

The policy dramatically reduced China's total fertility rate, from approximately 5.8 births per woman in 1970 to 1.7 by 1995. A severe sex-ratio imbalance emerged as families used selective abortion and, in some cases, infanticide to ensure their single permitted child was male. By 2005, China had 32 million more boys than girls under 20. The policy also accelerated ageing: by the 2010s, China faced a rapidly shrinking workforce and a growing elderly population with few children to support them.

Reform and Abolition

The policy was progressively relaxed from 2013, when couples where either parent was an only child could have two children. In October 2015, the two-child policy replaced it universally; in 2021, a three-child policy was announced as China's birth rate continued to fall even after restrictions were lifted. The persistence of low fertility after the policy's abolition suggests that the cultural and economic factors driving small families had become entrenched regardless of state directives.